The Legitimacy of Governments
The Illusion of Legitimacy: Why Governments Are Neither Inherently Legitimate nor Illegitimate
Samuel Qing
Imagine living 10,000 years ago in a small hunter-gatherer group. Life is risky, and survival depends on cooperation, knowledge of the land, and sharezd rules. Now imagine if one day, a person steps forward and says:
“I will protect you. I will punish criminals. Give me a share of your food, and I’ll make sure everyone follows the rules.”
At first, this arrangement may seem helpful. In an unsafe society, such as yours, protection is valuable, and this order makes life easier. But would this person seem legitimate? Would you think they deserve power just because they offer safety? Probably not. At best, they seem like a strong protector; at worst, they are an illegitimate lawless thief forcing people to give them resources. This example illustrates that power or services alone do not create legitimacy. Governments are not automatically legitimate or illegitimate, they exist only because people believe they have the right to rule. Belief, not force or efficiency, is what makes authority real.
This paper argues that legitimacy is a social construct dependent on belief, and that governments function only insofar as enough people accept their authority. By exploring historical examples, philosophical approaches, and modern political theory, this paper will show that legitimacy is fragile, context-dependent, and always subject to change.
What is Political Legitimacy?
Political legitimacy refers to the belief that a government has the right to rule. It is what separates governance from mere coercion. Without legitimacy, a government may still enforce rules through military or police power, but it lacks the deeper authority that comes from social acceptance (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023a). Legitimacy is the base for a government to function smoothly, maintain social order, and sustain public cooperation.
Legitimacy can be interpreted in two ways: normatively, which asks whether a government should rule based on moral or legal principles, and descriptively, which asks whether people actually accept the authority of the government (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011). This difference is key because a government may be morally justified but fail to gain public acceptance, or it may be widely accepted despite ethical failings. For example, abusive fascist regimes may maintain broad compliance because the majority of people accept or fear their authority, even if their actions are unjust.
Historically, legitimacy has taken many forms. The Roman Empire, for instance, relied on legal systems, military strength, and cultural norms to maintain its authority over vast populations. While its power was undeniable, scholars argue that its ultimate collapse was partly due to a loss of perceived legitimacy among its citizens and subjects. Military defeats, economic crises, and corrupt leadership all contributed to a sense that the government no longer represented the people or their interests, and was no longer legitimate. This shows that legitimacy is not static, it has to be continually maintained through belief, trust, and social structures.
Belief is the Foundation of Authority
Max Weber, one of the most influential thinkers on legitimacy, highlighted that authority depends on belief. He identified three types of legitimacy:
Traditional: Authority is justified because it has always existed, often rooted in customs or religion. Monarchies often fall under this category, where people accept rule because it is hereditary or culturally sanctioned.
Charismatic: Authority derives from the personal qualities or extraordinary appeal of a leader. Charismatic leaders inspire loyalty, even if their systems are informal or untested. Examples include revolutionary leaders like Mahatma Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr.
Legal-rational: Authority is based on laws, procedures, and formal rules, such as modern democracies or bureaucratic states (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011).
All three forms of legitimacy are rooted in social perception. Authority is not a physical fact but a relationship sustained by belief. Without this belief, even legally established systems lose their deeper moral authority. For example, a police force may enforce laws, but if the public no longer believes in the system, obedience becomes compliance under threat rather than voluntary cooperation. In this instance, in the eyes of the populus, said the government would be illegitimate.
The Social Contract
John Locke proposed that legitimacy comes from consent. Governments are only rightful if the people accept their authority, either explicitly or implicitly. This is the foundation of the social contract theory (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023b). In Locke’s view, individuals give up certain freedoms in exchange for protection and social order. Governments exist to serve people, and their legitimacy depends on continued acceptance.
However, explicit consent is rare. Most people never formally agree to be governed. Instead, they give tacit consent by subconsciously participating in society…paying taxes, following laws, and voting. This system is what the modern human is taught from birth, and it is the only system most know. Allowing many theoretically unsatisfactory or abusive governments to continue thriving. This highlights that legitimacy often depends on social habits, norms, and daily interactions, rather than formal agreements. Even modern democracies rely heavily on this unspoken consent, as the majority of citizens generally obey laws without questioning their authority.
Why Performance and Outcomes Do Not Guarantee Legitimacy
It might seem intuitive that a government becomes legitimate if it is effective. If it provides safety, justice, and economic stability… shouldn’t people naturally accept it? History shows that this is not always the case. Legitimacy is not guaranteed by performance. People obey laws out of habit, social conditioning, or fear, and stability can mask the fragility of authority.
For instance, the Weimar Republic in Germany faced severe economic and political crises during the 1920s and early 1930s, mainly caused by external factors, not a direct failure of the Weimar government, and despite the government’s efforts to maintain order and promote democracy, widespread public discontent and loss of belief in political institutions led to the rise of the Nazi regime. This demonstrates that effectiveness alone cannot maintain legitimacy; the belief of the governed is equally critical.
Similarly, abusive regimes like the Soviet Union maintained control for decades through a combination of coercion, propaganda, and partial social support. While the government was highly effective in enforcing rules and organizing society, its legitimacy was always contested because belief was uneven, enforced, and dependent on controlled narratives.
What if Belief Fades?
If belief is the fuel of legitimacy, what happens when belief disappears? A government may still enforce compliance through force and sheer power held from before, but in sense this is not true governance, it is coercion. Coercion can maintain order temporarily but cannot replace genuine legitimacy. Over time, a lack of belief can trigger resistance, rebellion, or collapse (Wikipedia, 2023b).
Historical examples include colonial administrations that initially maintained power through military might. When colonized populations began to question the legitimacy of their rulers, revolts and independence movements emerged. The British Empire, despite its global power, ultimately faced legitimacy crises in colonies such as India, leading to independence movements that challenged authority at every level.
Legitimacy Is Actually a Spectrum
Legitimacy is not black and white. It exists on a spectrum: a government could be legitimate for some and not for others. For example, in divided societies, different groups may recognize different authorities. Legitimacy is also distinct from morality. An oppressive government may maintain legitimacy if people believe in its authority, while a fair government may lack legitimacy if belief is absent (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011).
This perspective helps explain modern political crises. In countries with declining trust in institutions, people may obey laws selectively, protest widely, or disengage from political participation altogether. This shows that legitimacy depends on ongoing social recognition and cannot be assumed based solely on legality or moral reasoning.
Governments Are Neither Inherently Legitimate nor Inherently Illegitimate
Legitimacy is not a permanent property of governments. It exists only as long as people believe in the right to rule. A government that enforces laws through coercion without social acceptance may have power, but not authority. Conversely, governments may be accepted even if they are flawed, as long as people believe in their legitimacy.
This means legitimacy is socially constructed and maintained. Governments must continuously reinforce belief through communication, policies, fairness, and responsiveness. If public belief declines, authority erodes, even if the structures of government remain intact.
However, because the overwhelming majority of modern humans are born into societies governed by established states, obedience to authority becomes normalized from birth. Practices such as paying taxes, following laws, and accepting state institutions are learned as routine aspects of daily life rather than conscious political choices. As a result, it is uncommon for large portions of the population to seriously question the legitimacy or intentions of their government. This deeply ingrained acceptance allows many governments, including those that are ineffective, unjust, or oppressive, to maintain authority for long periods of time, not necessarily because they are legitimate in a moral sense, but because belief in their right to govern remains largely unchallenged.
Belief, Governance, and Society
Why do people follow laws if not for fear or reward? Obedience is reinforced by belief, the perception that laws are rightful and institutions are worthy of respect. This explains why stable societies often appear naturally orderly. People internalize norms and participate in social life without consciously questioning legitimacy. Belief, rather than necessity or enforcement, is the main factor maintaining authority.
Modern examples include Scandinavian countries, which enjoy high compliance with laws and regulations. This is largely due to a cultural belief in the legitimacy of government institutions, social equality, and the perception that laws serve collective interests. Contrast this with countries experiencing corruption or political instability, where belief in government legitimacy is low, and compliance is enforced primarily through coercion. These countries are largely unstable.
The Implications
Understanding legitimacy as belief has several important implications:
Governments must actively maintain social acceptance to govern effectively.
Citizens retain latent power: if belief erodes, authority weakens even without organized rebellion.
Stability and order depend not just on laws and enforcement, but on ongoing recognition of authority.
Even the strongest states are vulnerable if belief falters. Political polarization, misinformation, and loss of trust can all threaten legitimacy. Authority is constructed, maintained, and fragile, dependent on collective belief rather than inherent right.
Going Around
Governments need legitimacy to govern, and legitimacy requires governments to enforce systems that sustain belief. Authority is neither natural nor moral by default, it is a social contract continuously negotiated. Remove belief, and the cycle collapses. Governments do not inherently hold power; they borrow it from people through recognition and trust.
Modern Examples
Arab Spring (2010–2012): Popular uprisings across the Middle East were sparked largely by a loss of belief in government legitimacy. Long-standing authoritarian regimes, despite strong coercive power, were challenged when people no longer accepted their right to rule.
European Union governance: The EU operates on legitimacy derived from citizen belief in shared rules and democratic processes. Brexit highlights how shifts in public belief can challenge authority without necessarily destroying legal structures.
United States trust decline: Recent years have shown that declining trust in institutions, despite their formal authority, creates legitimacy crises, resulting in political polarization and contested governance.
Conclusion: Governments are Only Legitimate Insofar as There is Belief and trust in their Legitimacy
Returning to our 10,000-year-old scenario, the protective figure asking for food would not be legitimate because the group does not accept his authority. Power alone does not create legitimacy. Authority exists because people believe in it.
Governments function only as long as enough people believe in their right to rule. They are not automatically illegitimate when belief weakens. Legitimacy is neither fixed nor binary; it is socially maintained. When belief disappears, governments may continue to exist physically, but their authority collapses. Governments are real and powerful only because people believe they are. Recognizing this principle is essential for understanding political authority, reforming institutions, and sustaining societies.
References
Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023a). Legitimacy. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/legitimacy
Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023b). Democracy: The legitimacy of government. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy/The-legitimacy-of-government
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2011). Legitimacy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/legitimacy/
Wikipedia. (2023a). Political legitimacy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_legitimacy
Wikipedia. (2023b). Legitimation crisis. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legitimation_crisis
